Displaced Poles from the outbreak of the Second World War and the partitioning of Poland between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, remains one of the extraordinary stories that is both captivating and assuring humanity existed during one of the darkest times in Europe. With the fall of France in June 1940, the Polish Army who had also been part of the Narvik Campaign were transferred to Britain and made their ‘home’ in Scotland. With them were about 3,000 civilians. Here they built defences to protect Britain from potential invasion under Operation SEALION. During the Nazi and Soviet invasion, many civilians escaped over the Tatra Mountains through Slovakia and over the border with Romania where some were interned or they managed to escape to Hungary or France.
When Stalin decided to empty the Gulags of Polish deportees, a new wave of refugees arrived in Persia (Iran) after the signing of the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement in London July 1941 (Cienciala, 1996). While many view the treaty as an amnesty for the Poles, some aspects are overlooked. Article 1 covered the territories agreed upon by Germany and the Soviets in 1939 which were invalidated and reopened Soviet claims to eastern borderlands; Article 2 stated the restitution of diplomatic ties which were already strained and Article 3 covered the mutual pledges to assist each other in the defeat of Nazi Germany (Cienciala, 1996). What it failed to do was cover the transition of Polish civilians out of the Gulags to the freedom in Iran in detail of how the operation would take place. The Poles were ‘free’ within the Soviet system and yet were still at the whim and mercy of the NKVD. Transport and provision of food that was provided on their exodus was beyond dismal and meagre. The emaciated refugee’s health and well-being was not a concern of the Soviets or the NKVD. When the southern border on the Caspian Sea temporarily closed, many refugees were housed in collective farms on subsistence levels. In return, they had to work until the borders reopened (Kaniewska, 2016).
The geographical dispersion is quite remarkable. Over 116,000 refugees left the Soviet Union and headed to Tehran. Over 1.25 million Poles had been sent to the Gulags with many not surviving. Once released, they were dispersed to a variety of global camps. The children were mostly orphans whose parents had perished in the Gulags. In total, nearly 325,000 Poles migrated and many passed through Iran before their final destination (Kumelska-Koniecko, 2023).
Iran was under stress where the Soviets had blocked the export rice to Iran which meant feeding the refugees was problematic, hence the dispersal to India, Africa and Mexico. To stabilise the region, there was an Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in August 1941 under the code name Operation COUNTENANCE under the pretext of countering a German invasion (Eshraghi, 1984) which resulted in breaking the Iranian neutrality.
The invasion enabled the expulsion of many colonial Germans who prior to the invasion of Russia were not deemed to be a threat to the Soviets, but more of a threat to Britain’s Middle East interests and seen as 5th columnists. The invasion also paved the way for a safe supply route of military aid to the USSR from the Allies rather than the more treacherous Arctic route (Erkan, 2010; Kozhanov, 2012; Soghomonyan, 2023). As a result, it changed US strategy within the region (Dahm, 2022). Additionally, Iran granted an amnesty to the Polish refugees that enabled them to start rebuilding their lives (Sternfeld, 2018). This in part had a huge cultural impact on Iranian society since the Polish women refugees worked in diverse roles breaking gender boundaries and religious taboos which lasted long after the war. Some 200-300 Polish women remained in Iran contributing to the future of social and cultural issues (Saeidinia, 2025). To help trace relatives, 24 weekly 4-page inserts into the Polish exile newspaper “Polska Walcząca” (“Poland Fighting”) were made assisting families and the authorities traying to trace survivors.
The 74,000 troops were treated differently and sent to Mosul and Kirkuk in Iraq for rehabilitation before being transferred to Palestine while the civilians numbering 41,000 were initially detained in Iran.
The experience for the emaciated refugees sent to the camps in Africa was probably a mixture of anxiety and curiosity. Imagine arriving at Nairobi railway station with all the heat and atmosphere of an African country, to be greeted by a brass band and a group of English women supervising the arrangements. The abundance of food was a shock (Lingelbach, 2022). Other groups were transferred to Pakistan to camps in Karachi and Quetta between 1942 and 1946, taking an overland route through Iran, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan (Shahani, 2021; Kumelska-Koniecko, 2023).
A British Official acted as a commandant and was assisted by a camp manager who was appointed by the Polish Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare. The settlements were typically divided into sections and groups. The heads of departments for education, pastoral care, health care, culture and work were appointed. Catholic churches were set up to cover their religious needs too. There were also camp councils representing residents in the running of the camps. Great emphasis was placed on education and many refugee children matriculated before leaving the camps between 1946 and 1950.
The costs of maintaining the settlements were covered by the British authorities and added to the debt of the Polish government with the Polish Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare reporting to the Government in Exile in London. In most cases, the camps and ability to integrate into their ‘host’ country was a success of varying degrees, however, those refugees sent to Rhodesia faced discrimination due to race and potentially harbouring communist views (Tavuyanago; Muguti, and Hlongwana, 2012) which were not reported from other countries. The camps were challenged by the severe shortages of resources, particularly administrators and conflicts between imperial British rule and local politics. After Yalta, the marginalisation of the Polish refugees was gradual and yet the camps and their functionality survived until the departure of the Poles between 1948 and 1950 (Murkociński, 2018).
Many of the camps developed their own farms and set up sporting, cultural and scouting clubs to support the pastoral care programmes. Stańczyk (2018) points out that cultural representations are dominated by a narrative that focusses on suffering, depravation, displacement and death, leaving forgotten stories of hope and survival in these exotic locations. The experiences of the children have been largely overlooked where they were in located in relatively safe and happy environments. However, Szewczuk (2022) utilises the research by Rush published in 2022 which suggested that the survivor’s post-traumatic loss was transmitted across three generations.
The refugees sent to Santa Rosa in Mexico arrived in two transports. The first group of 706 people arrived on 1st July 1943 via Los Angeles and the second group on 3rd November 1943 consisting of 726 people. They were transported by train to León (Stańczyk, 2018). 66 of the refugees would later be transported to New Zealand aboard the SS. Windrush whose own story is remarkable too.
The following table has been compiled from multiple sources. It should be noted that there are discrepancies in various publications and this may be due to refugees being transferred between camps and countries. The website Polish Exiles of WW2 is an excellent resource for tracing relatives.
Source: With kind permission of kresyfamily.com
Source: With kind permission from kresyfamily.com
Location of Refugee Camps and Numbers
| Country | Location | Total Refugees |
| Persia/ Iran | Quarantine in Pahlavi then to Tehran and Isfahan | 116,000 relocated to Iran of which 5,000 to 6,000 were Jewish in origin.2,373 orphaned children (74,000 Polish troops via a different screening and healthcare programme) |
| Palestine | Camp Bashit and Castina Temporary camps in:JerusalemNazarethRehovotAin-KarimBarbara | 5,000 who were mainly part of the Polish Scouting movement attached to the Polish Army and aged between 14-18 years old. Many were classified as cadets and entitled to army rations and pay. On reaching 18 years old were transferred into Anders Army. |
| Lebanon | Beirut (Temporary camp) GhazirZauk Michael/ Zouk MikaelAjaltounBoladoun/ Bdadoun | 6,000 between 1943 – 1946 with other camps to distribute the refugees. |
| India | Temporary camps at:Mount Abu Panchgani Bandra Now Pakistan:Karachi (Country Club Camp) temporary, Haji Pilgrims Camp, also temporary.Malir Camp – Permanent Quetta – Permanent Permanent camps :Balachadi Valivade | 15,000 in total SchoolTreatment centre and school. 5,000 refugees of which 2,500 were. Children. 1,058 orphans under the protection of the Maharaja. 5,000 ran by UNRAA. |
| Uganda | MasindiKoya | In total 6,195 |
| Kenya | Nairobi Rongai/ Ongata RongaiManiraMakinduNyali | 18,677 refugees passed through the transit camp and rehoused. |
| Tanganyika / Tanzania | Tengeru KigomaKidugalaIfundaKondoaMorogoro | Over 4,000 refugees at its peak. N/KN/K780430N/K |
| South Africa | Oudtshoorn, Klien Karoo, Western Cape. | 502 |
| Northern Rhodesia / Zambia | Abercorn/ MbalaBwana M’KubwaFort Jameson/ ChiptaLivingston/ Lusaka | In total 3,4195971,431164 1,227 |
| Southern Rhodesia / Zimbabwe | DigglefordMarandellas/ MaronderaRusapeGatooma/ Kadoma | In total 6,831 by 1944.1,000600726 |
| Mexico | Santa Rosa near León | 1,463 |
| New Zealand | Pahiatua | 837 |
Sources: Piotrowski (2004); Kochanski (2012), IPN, Instytut Polski, Kresy-Siberia.org, kresyfamily.com; Bhattacharjee, (2013), Szewczuk, (2022); Polish Exiles of WW2; Mbewe et al, (2025).
Postscript
The inhumane system of the Gulags and the indifference by the Soviet authorities towards the treatment of the deportees to Siberia remains one of the scandals of World War Two. The deportees were slave labours in the most appalling conditions and today many people balk at the degree of inhumanity shown not only to the Poles, but also Ukrainians and other minorities caught up in the Soviet purges. The fact that on release, many Poles survived and a few wrote of their experiences to educate the World before the Soviet system purged the truth. Some never recovered and spent the rest of their lives broken by the brutality of the Soviet regime.
For those interested in personal accounts, Tadeusz Piotrowski’s book has an array of accounts about the camps that is worth delving into.
Selected References
Bhattacharjee, A. (2013) “Polish Refugees in India, During and After the Second World War”, The Sarmatian Review, No.2, pp. 1743-1756.
Cienciala, A.N. (1996) “GENERAL SIKORSKI AND THE CONCLUSION OF THE POLISH-SOVIET AGREEMENT OF JULY 30, 1941: A REASSESSMENT”, The Polish Review, Vol. XLI, No.4, pp.401-434.
Dahm, A.N. (2022) “The Anglo-Soviet alliance and Its Impact on the American Intervention in Iran 1941-1945”. Journal of Tikrit University for Humanities, Vol. 29, No.81, pp.297–315.
Damandan, P. (2010) “The Children of Isfahan: Polish Refugees in Iran”, Nazarpub, Iran.
Eshraghi, F. (1984) “Anglo-Soviet Occupation in August 1941”, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No.1, pp.27-52.
Erkan, S. (2010) “The Invasion of Iran by the Allies during World War II”, Codrul Cosminului, Vol.16, No.2, pp.109-132.
Kaniewska, A. (2016) “Polish citizens exiled to Altai Krai: From the deportations to the Sikorski-Mayski agreement (in the light of the NKVD documents)”, Przegląd Wschodnioeuropejski, Vol. VII, No.2, pp.53-69.
Kochanski, H. (2012) “The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War”, Allen Lane, UK.
Kozhanov, N.A. (2012) “The Pretexts and Reasons for the Allied Invasion of Iran in 1941”, Iranian Studies, Vol.45, No.4
Kransnowolska, A. (2025) “Polish Refugees in Iran During the Second World War: The Creation and Reshaping of Literary Stereotypes, Journal of Persianate Studies, Vol. 18, No.1-2, pp.98-116.
Kumelska-Koniecko, M. (2023) “The Historical Narration of Polish Refugees in British India”, Journal of European Studies, No. 39, No.2, pp. 43-53.
Lingelbach, J. (2022) “Refugees in the Imperial Order of Things: Citizen, Subject, and Polish Refugees in Africa (1942-50)”, Africa Today, Vol. 61, No.1&2, pp.510-530.
Mbewe, M. (2025) “Remembering a Polish refugee camp in Mbala, Zambia: Community initiatives, excavations, museum exhibitions and local memories”, Memory Studies, Vol.18, No.5, pp.1172-1188.
Murkociński, M. (2019) “BETWEEN WAR AND PEACE: A BRIEF COMPARISON OF POLISH REFUGEES’ ADMINISTRATIONS IN EAST AFRICA AND LEBANON”, Prace Historyczne, No.146, No.3, pp.565-583.
Murkociński, M. (2018) “To Govern a Community of Refugees: Some Insights into the History of the Polish Refugee Administration in East Africa, 1942-1945, Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny, Vol. 170, No.4, pp.119-136.
Piotrowski, T. (2004) “The Polish Deportees of the World War II: Recollection of removal to the Soviet Union and Dispersal Throughout the World”, McFarland, USA.
Saeidinia, H. (2025) “Polish Women Immigrants in Iran Since World War II: Social and Cultural Activities in the Host Land”, Konteksty Kultury, Vol. 22, No.1, pp.85-107.
Shahani, U. (2021) “The dispersal of displaced persons in the British Empire and beyond: from World War Two to the Partition of India”, Refugee Blog, (Accessed 18.03.2026).
Stańczyk, E. (2018) “Exilic Childhood in Very Foreign Lands: Memoirs of Polish Refugees in World War II”, Journal of War & Culture, Vol. 11, No.2, pp.136-149.
Sternfeld, L. (2018) “Poland Is Not Lost While We Still Live: The Making of Polish Iran, 1941-45”, Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 23, No.3, pp101-127.
Soghomonyan, H. (2023) “The British and Soviet occupation of Iran (1941)”, YSU Journal of International Affairs, Vol.14, No.1, pp.28-40.
Tavuyanago, B; Muguti, T and Hlongwana, J. (2012) “Victims of Rhodesian Immigration Policy: Polish Refugees from the Second World War”, Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol.38, No.4, pp.951-865.
Additional References:
Stewart, R.A. (1988) “Sunrise at Abadan: The British and Soviet Invasion of Iran, 1941”, Prager, UK.
Surhone, L.M (Ed) (2010) “Sikorski–Mayski Agreement: Soviet Union, Poland, Władysław Sikorski, United Kingdom, Ivan Mayski”, Betascript Publishing, UK.
Selected Films and YouTube:
“Finding Home: Polish Refugees in Lebanon”, (2022) Directed by Dominika Ożyńska and Adrian Hartrick – Documentary.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpJvDQVX_Dc – Poles in Persia Pathé News
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEe-GOUhG0U – Chanel Persia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9AGXtzdJeA – When India Saved Polish Orphans
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jehDAVA-LEk – Poland and India’s WWII Connection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOgmG_sCjwk – New Homes for Poles in Lusaka (1940-1949)
https://memoryisourhomeland.com – Documentary by Jonathan Kolodziej Durand
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VfRWD22gegg – Welcoming 837 Polish refugees in NZ 1944
https://www.nzonscreen.com/title/the-story-of-seven-hundred-polish-children-1966 – Documentary in two parts on the refugees in NZ.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-McQMJvaZbk – Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 1941
Selected Web Sites
kresyfamily.com
